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326 recordsExon
A gene segment retained in a mature RNA after processing; an exon may contain coding sequence, untranslated sequence, or both.
Promoter
A DNA region near a transcription start site where RNA polymerase and associated proteins assemble to begin transcription.
TP53 · tumor protein p53
A protein-coding gene whose product helps cells respond to stress by regulating cell-cycle arrest, DNA repair, senescence, and apoptosis.
p53 · Cellular tumor antigen p53
A 393-amino-acid transcription factor that helps determine how a stressed cell responds to damage.
mTORC1 · Mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1
A nutrient- and growth-responsive protein complex that coordinates cell growth with protein synthesis, nutrient use, and autophagy. It contains MTOR, RPTOR, and other subunits; it is not a single protein.
HBB · hemoglobin subunit beta
HBB provides instructions for beta-globin, one of the protein subunits in adult hemoglobin. Particular HBB variants produce hemoglobin S and can cause sickle cell disease when inherited in disease-associated combinations.
2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex · EC 1.2.4.2
Oxidatively decarboxylates 2-oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA.
3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase · EC 4.1.3.4
Produces acetoacetate and acetyl-CoA from HMG-CoA in leucine catabolism.
3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase · EC 6.4.1.4
Biotin-dependent enzyme in leucine catabolism.
3′ Untranslated region (3′ UTR) · 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR)
The transcribed portion of an mRNA after its coding sequence that can influence RNA stability, location, and translation.
4E-BP1 (EIF4EBP1) · eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E binding protein 1
A translation-regulating protein. mTORC1-dependent phosphorylation can reduce 4E-BP1 binding to eIF4E, helping control translation initiation.
5′ Untranslated region (5′ UTR) · 5′ untranslated region (5′ UTR)
The transcribed portion of an mRNA before its coding sequence; it is present in the mature message but is not part of the main protein-coding region.
6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase · EC 1.1.1.44
Oxidatively decarboxylates 6-phosphogluconate to ribulose 5-phosphate and NADPH.
6-Phosphogluconolactonase · EC 3.1.1.31
Hydrolyzes 6-phosphogluconolactone to 6-phosphogluconate.
ACAA2 · NCBI Gene 10449
ACAA2 contributes to Acetyl-CoA acyltransferase 2.
ACACA · NCBI Gene 31
ACACA contributes to Acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
ACADM · acyl-CoA dehydrogenase medium chain
Encodes medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase for mitochondrial fatty-acid oxidation.
ACADVL · NCBI Gene 37
ACADVL contributes to Very-long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase.
Acetyl-CoA acyltransferase 2 · EC 2.3.1.16
Cleaves 3-ketoacyl-CoA with CoA, releasing acetyl-CoA and a shortened acyl-CoA.
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase · EC 6.4.1.2
Biotin-dependent enzyme that makes malonyl-CoA, the committed precursor for fatty-acid synthesis.
ACLY · NCBI Gene 47
ACLY contributes to ATP-citrate lyase.
ACO2 · NCBI Gene 50
ACO2 contributes to Aconitase 2.
Aconitase 2 · EC 4.2.1.3
Reversibly isomerizes citrate to isocitrate through cis-aconitate.
ADCY5 · adenylate cyclase 5
Encodes one membrane adenylyl cyclase isoform that synthesizes cAMP from ATP in response to regulatory inputs including Gαs.
Adenylosuccinate lyase · EC 4.3.2.2
Releases fumarate from SAICAR during purine-ring assembly.
Adenylyl Cyclase 5 (ADCY5) · adenylate cyclase 5
A membrane enzyme isoform that converts ATP to cyclic AMP. ADCY5 is one example of the adenylyl cyclases regulated by G-protein and other cellular inputs.
ADSL · NCBI Gene 158
ADSL contributes to Adenylosuccinate lyase.
ADSS1 · NCBI Gene 159
ADSS1 contributes to AMP branch enzymes.
Adult Hemoglobin A · hemoglobin alpha2-beta2 tetramer
Hemoglobin A is the main adult hemoglobin, assembled from two alpha-globin and two beta-globin subunits, each bound to heme.
AGL · NCBI Gene 178
AGL contributes to Glycogen debranching enzyme.
AGO2 · argonaute RISC catalytic component 2
Encodes AGO2, a catalytic RNA-binding protein that can guide target cleavage within RNA-induced silencing complexes.
AGO2 · argonaute RISC catalytic component 2
The catalytic Argonaute component of many siRNA-loaded RISC complexes. Cleavage depends on guide-target pairing, RNA accessibility, and the relevant cellular context.
AICAR transformylase · EC 2.1.2.3
Transfers a second one-carbon unit to AICAR.
AIR carboxylase · EC 4.1.1.21
Adds carbon dioxide to AIR during purine biosynthesis.
AIR synthetase · EC 6.3.3.1
Closes the imidazole ring of an FGAM intermediate.
AKT1 · AKT serine/threonine kinase 1
Encodes AKT1, a kinase activated downstream of PI3K-generated PIP3 that regulates diverse cellular targets.
AKT1 · AKT serine/threonine kinase 1
A serine/threonine kinase recruited to the membrane by PIP3. AKT1 is phosphorylated by more than one kinase and regulates many targets involved in growth, survival, and metabolism.
AKT2 · AKT serine/threonine kinase 2
Encodes AKT2, an AKT isoform with a prominent role in insulin-regulated glucose and lipid metabolism.
AKT2 · AKT serine/threonine kinase 2
An AKT kinase isoform recruited into phosphoinositide signaling. AKT2 has a prominent role in insulin-stimulated glucose transport in muscle and adipose tissue, while AKT isoform contributions overlap and depend on cellular context.
ALDOA · NCBI Gene 226
ALDOA contributes to Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase.
ALDOB · NCBI Gene 229
ALDOB contributes to Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase.
ALDOC · NCBI Gene 230
ALDOC contributes to Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase.
AMP branch enzymes · EC 6.3.4.4
Converts IMP through adenylosuccinate to AMP; the displayed step groups the branch reactions.
Antibody
An antigen-binding immunoglobulin made by B-lineage cells that can neutralize targets or recruit other immune mechanisms.
ARG1 · NCBI Gene 383
ARG1 contributes to Arginase 1.
Arginase 1 · EC 3.5.3.1
Hydrolyzes arginine to urea and ornithine, closing the cycle.
Argininosuccinate lyase · EC 4.3.2.1
Cleaves argininosuccinate to arginine and fumarate.
Argininosuccinate synthase · EC 6.3.4.5
Adds aspartate to citrulline in an ATP-dependent reaction.
ASL · NCBI Gene 435
ASL contributes to Argininosuccinate lyase.
ASS1 · NCBI Gene 445
ASS1 contributes to Argininosuccinate synthase.
ATIC · NCBI Gene 471
ATIC contributes to IMP cyclohydrolase.
ATP synthase (complex V) · EC 7.1.2.2
Uses the proton-motive force across the inner mitochondrial membrane to synthesize ATP.
ATP-citrate lyase · EC 2.3.3.8
Uses ATP and coenzyme A to cleave cytosolic citrate into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate.
ATP5F1A · NCBI Gene 498
ATP5F1A contributes to ATP synthase (complex V).
BCAT1 · NCBI Gene 586
BCAT1 contributes to Branched-chain amino-acid aminotransferase.
BCAT2 · NCBI Gene 587
BCAT2 contributes to Branched-chain amino-acid aminotransferase.
BCKDHA · NCBI Gene 593
BCKDHA contributes to Branched-chain alpha-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex.
BCKDHB · NCBI Gene 594
BCKDHB contributes to Branched-chain alpha-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex.
Beta-globin · hemoglobin subunit beta
Beta-globin pairs with alpha-globin and heme to form hemoglobin, the oxygen-binding protein in red blood cells.
BRAF · B-Raf proto-oncogene, serine/threonine kinase
Encodes a RAF-family kinase that can activate MEK proteins in the RAS–RAF–MEK–ERK signaling module.
BRAF · B-Raf proto-oncogene, serine/threonine kinase
A RAF-family kinase that relays signals from RAS toward MEK1 and MEK2. Its activity depends on cellular context and regulatory interactions.
Branched-chain alpha-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex · EC 1.2.4.4
Irreversibly oxidatively decarboxylates the branched-chain keto acids.
Branched-chain amino-acid aminotransferase · EC 2.6.1.42
Transfers the amino group from leucine, isoleucine, and valine to alpha-ketoglutarate.
CAD · NCBI Gene 790
CAD contributes to CAD multifunctional enzyme.
CAD multifunctional enzyme · EC 6.3.5.5
Carries out the first three reactions of de novo pyrimidine synthesis: carbamoyl phosphate formation, aspartate addition, and ring closure.
Carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase I · EC 6.3.4.16
Mitochondrial enzyme that combines ammonia and bicarbonate using two ATP; activated by N-acetylglutamate.
Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A · EC 2.3.1.21
Transfers long-chain acyl groups to carnitine to support mitochondrial import.
CDKN1A · cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 1A
A p53-responsive gene that encodes p21, a protein involved in slowing cell-cycle progression.
Chromatin
DNA packaged with proteins and other molecules that organize chromosomes and influence access to genetic information.
Chromosome
A DNA molecule together with associated proteins and other components that organize and transmit genetic information.
CI-MPR (IGF2R) · insulin like growth factor 2 receptor
A multifunctional receptor that binds mannose-6-phosphate-tagged cargo and participates in trafficking selected lysosomal enzymes. This is one route among several, and uptake depends on cargo and cell context.
Citrate synthase · EC 2.3.3.1
Condenses acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate to form citrate.
Class IA PI3K · Class IA phosphoinositide 3-kinase heterodimer
A regulatory p85 subunit and catalytic p110 subunit form a lipid kinase complex. When activated, it can convert PIP2 to PIP3, helping recruit AKT and other signaling proteins to the membrane.
Coding Sequence (CDS) · Coding sequence (CDS)
The part of a transcript annotated as specifying a protein sequence, from its translation start through its termination codon.
COX4I1 · NCBI Gene 1327
COX4I1 contributes to Cytochrome c oxidase.
CPS1 · NCBI Gene 1373
CPS1 contributes to Carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase I.
CPT1A · NCBI Gene 1374
CPT1A contributes to Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A.
CS · NCBI Gene 1431
CS contributes to Citrate synthase.
CYP51A1 · NCBI Gene 1595
CYP51A1 contributes to Sterol-processing enzymes.
Cytochrome c oxidase · EC 7.1.1.9
Transfers electrons to oxygen, reducing it to water and contributing to the proton gradient.
DBT · dihydrolipoamide branched chain transacylase E2 subunit
Encodes the E2 subunit of the branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase complex.
DHCR24 · NCBI Gene 1718
DHCR24 contributes to Sterol-processing enzymes.
DHCR7 · NCBI Gene 1717
DHCR7 contributes to Sterol-processing enzymes.
DHODH · NCBI Gene 1723
DHODH contributes to Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase.
Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase · EC 1.3.5.2
Oxidizes dihydroorotate to orotate at the mitochondrial inner membrane.
DLAT · NCBI Gene 1737
DLAT contributes to Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
DLD · NCBI Gene 1738
DLD contributes to 2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex.
DLST · NCBI Gene 1743
DLST contributes to 2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex.
DUSP6 · dual specificity phosphatase 6
Encodes a phosphatase that can dephosphorylate ERK proteins and participate in MAPK pathway feedback.
DUSP6 · dual specificity phosphatase 6
A dual-specificity phosphatase that can remove activating phosphates from ERK and contribute to feedback regulation.
ECHS1 · NCBI Gene 1892
ECHS1 contributes to Enoyl-CoA hydratase.
EGF · epidermal growth factor
Encodes a precursor that is processed to release epidermal growth factor, a ligand that binds EGFR.
EGF · epidermal growth factor
A growth-factor ligand produced by processing a larger precursor. EGF can bind EGFR and trigger receptor signaling.
EGFR · epidermal growth factor receptor
Encodes a cell-surface receptor tyrosine kinase that can activate RAS–MAPK and PI3K–AKT signaling.
EGFR · epidermal growth factor receptor
EGFR is a receptor tyrosine kinase. Ligand binding can promote receptor pairing and phosphorylation, creating docking sites for adaptors that connect to RAS–RAF–MEK–ERK and PI3K–AKT signaling. Which branches dominate depends on receptor abundance, trafficking, ligand, and cell state.
EGFR–HER2 Heterodimer · EGFR–ERBB2 receptor tyrosine kinase heterodimer
A representative ERBB receptor pair. Ligand-bound EGFR can pair with HER2; HER2 has no established soluble ligand of its own and can feed both MAPK and PI3K signaling through receptor-associated complexes.
EIF4EBP1 · eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E binding protein 1
Encodes 4E-BP1, a translation regulator whose phosphorylation by mTORC1 can release eIF4E to support translation initiation.
Enhancer
A regulatory DNA region that can raise transcription by binding regulatory proteins and communicating with a promoter.
ENO1 · NCBI Gene 2023
ENO1 contributes to Enolase.
ENO2 · NCBI Gene 2026
ENO2 contributes to Enolase.
ENO3 · NCBI Gene 2027
ENO3 contributes to Enolase.
Enolase · EC 4.2.1.11
Mg2+-dependent dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate.
Enoyl-CoA hydratase · EC 4.2.1.17
Adds water across the double bond of trans-2-enoyl-CoA.
ERBB2 · erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 2
Encodes HER2, a receptor tyrosine kinase that can pair with other ERBB-family receptors and signal into growth-control networks.
ERBB3 · erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 3
Encodes an ERBB-family receptor with impaired intrinsic kinase activity that signals through partnering receptors and adaptor proteins.
ERK1 (MAPK3) · mitogen-activated protein kinase 3
A MAP kinase activated by MEK1 or MEK2. ERK1 can phosphorylate many targets; its effects depend on the cell and signal context.
ERK2 (MAPK1) · mitogen-activated protein kinase 1
A MAP kinase activated by MEK1 or MEK2. ERK2 can phosphorylate many targets and move into the nucleus after some signals.
Farnesyl diphosphate synthase · EC 2.5.1.10
Combines isoprenoid units to make farnesyl diphosphate.
FASN · NCBI Gene 2194
FASN contributes to Fatty acid synthase.
Fatty acid synthase · EC 2.3.1.85
Multifunctional enzyme that repeatedly extends an acyl chain to palmitate using malonyl units and NADPH.
FBP1 · NCBI Gene 2203
FBP1 contributes to Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase.
FDFT1 · NCBI Gene 2222
FDFT1 contributes to Squalene synthase.
FDPS · NCBI Gene 2224
FDPS contributes to Farnesyl diphosphate synthase.
FGAM synthetase · EC 6.3.5.3
Uses glutamine to add a nitrogen atom during purine-ring assembly.
FH · NCBI Gene 2271
FH contributes to Fumarase.
FOXO1 · forkhead box O1
Encodes a transcription factor regulated by insulin signaling and involved in tissue-specific gene programs.
FOXO1 · forkhead box O1
A transcription factor whose activity and localization can be regulated by AKT-dependent phosphorylation. In hepatocytes, insulin-linked FOXO1 regulation can change expression of genes involved in glucose production; this is one part of broader liver control.
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase · EC 3.1.3.11
Hydrolyzes fructose 1,6-bisphosphate; a bypass of the irreversible PFK-1 step.
Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase · EC 4.1.2.13
Splits fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into two three-carbon phosphates. Human aldolases are class I enzymes that work through a Schiff-base intermediate.
Fumarase · EC 4.2.1.2
Reversibly hydrates fumarate to malate.
G6PC · NCBI Gene 2538
G6PC contributes to Glucose-6-phosphatase.
G6PC1 · glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit 1
Encodes the catalytic component of the glucose-6-phosphatase system.
G6PD · NCBI Gene 2539
G6PD contributes to Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.
GAPDH · NCBI Gene 2597
GAPDH contributes to Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
GAR synthetase · EC 6.3.4.13
Adds glycine to phosphoribosylamine during purine-ring assembly.
GAR transformylase · EC 2.1.2.2
Transfers a one-carbon unit from 10-formyl-THF to GAR.
GART · NCBI Gene 2618
GART contributes to AIR synthetase.
GBE1 · NCBI Gene 2632
GBE1 contributes to Glycogen branching enzyme.
GCK · NCBI Gene 2645
GCK contributes to Hexokinase.
Glucose-6-phosphatase · EC 3.1.3.9
Hydrolyzes glucose 6-phosphate in the endoplasmic reticulum of glucose-exporting tissues.
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase · EC 1.1.1.49
Catalyzes the first, rate-controlling oxidation of the pentose phosphate pathway.
Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase · G6PD · EC 1.1.1.49
G6PD catalyzes the first reaction of the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, reducing NADP+ to NADPH.
Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase · EC 5.3.1.9
Interconverts glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate.
Glutamine phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase · EC 2.4.2.14
Catalyzes the first committed step of de novo purine synthesis.
Glutathione Peroxidase 1 · GPX1 · cytosolic glutathione peroxidase
GPX1 uses reduced glutathione to reduce hydrogen peroxide and other peroxides.
Glutathione Reductase · Glutathione-disulfide reductase · GSR
Glutathione reductase uses NADPH to convert oxidized glutathione (GSSG) back to reduced glutathione (GSH).
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase · EC 1.2.1.12
Oxidizes G3P with NAD+ and adds inorganic phosphate through a catalytic-cysteine thioester intermediate.
Glycogen branching enzyme · EC 2.4.1.18
Creates alpha-1,6 branches in glycogen.
Glycogen debranching enzyme · EC 3.2.1.33
Transfers short glucose chains and hydrolyzes alpha-1,6 branch points during glycogen breakdown.
Glycogen phosphorylase · EC 2.4.1.1
Releases glucose 1-phosphate from non-reducing ends of glycogen.
Glycogen synthase · EC 2.4.1.11
Extends the alpha-1,4-linked glycogen chain using UDP-glucose.
GMP branch enzymes · EC 6.3.5.2
Converts IMP through XMP to GMP; the displayed step groups the branch reactions.
GMPS · NCBI Gene 8833
GMPS contributes to GMP branch enzymes.
GNAS · GNAS complex locus
A complex human locus that encodes Gαs among several products; Gαs relays signals from selected GPCRs to adenylyl cyclases.
GPI · NCBI Gene 2821
GPI contributes to Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase.
GPX1 · glutathione peroxidase 1
Encodes a cytosolic selenoprotein that uses glutathione to reduce hydrogen peroxide and other peroxides.
GRB2 · growth factor receptor bound protein 2
Encodes an adaptor protein that links phosphorylated receptors and adaptors to SOS-family RAS activators.
GRB2 · growth factor receptor bound protein 2
An adaptor protein that helps recruit SOS-family exchange factors to activated receptor signaling complexes.
GSK3B · glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta
Encodes a kinase that can restrain glycogen synthase and is regulated by insulin-linked AKT signaling.
GSK3β · glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta
A serine/threonine kinase that can inhibit glycogen synthase through phosphorylation. In insulin signaling, AKT-dependent inhibitory phosphorylation of GSK3B can help favor glycogen synthesis; multiple enzymes and signals regulate glycogen flux.
GSR · glutathione-disulfide reductase
Encodes glutathione reductase, which uses NADPH to regenerate reduced glutathione from glutathione disulfide.
GYS1 · NCBI Gene 2997
GYS1 contributes to Glycogen synthase.
GYS2 · NCBI Gene 2998
GYS2 contributes to Glycogen synthase.
Gαs (GNAS) · GNAS complex locus
The stimulatory alpha subunit of a heterotrimeric G protein. In its GTP-bound state, Gαs can stimulate adenylyl cyclase; GNAS has multiple gene products, so this record focuses on the Gαs signaling role.
HADHA · NCBI Gene 3030
HADHA contributes to Mitochondrial trifunctional protein.
Hemoglobin S
A hemoglobin tetramer containing sickle beta-globin subunits; deoxygenated molecules can polymerize under susceptible intracellular conditions.
HER2 (ERBB2) · erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 2
A member of the ERBB receptor family. HER2 has no established soluble ligand of its own and can participate in signaling as a partner for other ERBB receptors.
HER3 (ERBB3) · erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 3
An ERBB-family receptor with weak intrinsic kinase activity. HER3 can signal by pairing with kinase-active ERBB partners, including HER2.
Hexokinase · EC 2.7.1.1
Transfers a phosphate from ATP to glucose. Hexokinases 1–3 are inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate. Glucokinase is a lower-affinity isozyme found in liver and pancreatic β-cells.
HK1 · NCBI Gene 3098
HK1 contributes to Hexokinase.
HK2 · NCBI Gene 3099
HK2 contributes to Hexokinase.
HK3 · NCBI Gene 3101
HK3 contributes to Hexokinase.
HMG-CoA reductase · EC 1.1.1.34
NADPH-dependent, rate-limiting enzyme that reduces HMG-CoA to mevalonate.
HMG-CoA Reductase · HMG-CoA reductase
A rate-controlling enzyme in the mevalonate pathway and the molecular target of statin medicines.
HMG-CoA synthase (cytosolic) · EC 2.3.3.10
Condenses acetyl-CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA in the mevalonate pathway.
HMGCL · NCBI Gene 3155
HMGCL contributes to 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase.
HMGCR · NCBI Gene 3156
HMGCR contributes to HMG-CoA reductase.
HMGCS1 · NCBI Gene 3157
HMGCS1 contributes to HMG-CoA synthase (cytosolic).
IDH3A · NCBI Gene 3419
IDH3A contributes to NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase.
IDH3B · NCBI Gene 3420
IDH3B contributes to NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase.
IDH3G · NCBI Gene 3421
IDH3G contributes to NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase.
IDI1 · NCBI Gene 3422
IDI1 contributes to Isopentenyl-diphosphate delta-isomerase.
IGF2R · insulin like growth factor 2 receptor
Encodes the cation-independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor, which also binds IGF2 and helps traffic selected lysosomal enzymes.
Immunoglobulin G
A major class of secreted antibody composed of two heavy and two light chains.
IMP cyclohydrolase · EC 3.5.4.10
Closes the second purine ring to form IMP.
Insulin
A hormone that helps coordinate nutrient use and storage after food intake.
Insulin Receptor · Insulin receptor
A cell-surface receptor that detects insulin and initiates intracellular signaling.
Intron
A transcribed region removed from many eukaryotic RNA precursors during RNA splicing.
Isopentenyl-diphosphate delta-isomerase · EC 5.3.3.2
Reversibly interconverts IPP and dimethylallyl diphosphate.
Isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase · EC 1.3.8.4
Oxidizes isovaleryl-CoA early in leucine catabolism.
IVD · NCBI Gene 3712
IVD contributes to Isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase.
KRAS · KRAS proto-oncogene, GTPase
Encodes a small GTPase that relays signals from receptors to RAF kinases and other effectors when GTP-bound.
KRAS · KRAS proto-oncogene, GTPase
A molecular switch that cycles between GDP-bound and GTP-bound states. Active KRAS can recruit RAF and engage other effectors, including PI3K.
Lanosterol synthase · EC 5.4.99.7
Cyclizes 2,3-oxidosqualene to lanosterol.
LDL Particle
A circulating lipoprotein particle that carries cholesterol and is recognized by LDL receptors through apolipoprotein B-100.
LDL Receptor · LDL receptor
A cell-surface receptor that binds LDL particles and helps cells, especially liver cells, remove them from circulation.
LSS · NCBI Gene 4047
LSS contributes to Lanosterol synthase.
MAP2K1 · mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1
Encodes MEK1, a dual-specificity kinase that phosphorylates and activates ERK1 and ERK2.
MAP2K2 · mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2
Encodes MEK2, a dual-specificity kinase that phosphorylates and activates ERK1 and ERK2.
MAPK1 · mitogen-activated protein kinase 1
Encodes ERK2, a kinase activated by MEK proteins that acts on targets in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
MAPK3 · mitogen-activated protein kinase 3
Encodes ERK1, a kinase activated by MEK proteins that acts on targets in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
MCCC1 · NCBI Gene 56922
MCCC1 contributes to 3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase.
MCCC2 · NCBI Gene 64087
MCCC2 contributes to 3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase.
MDH2 · NCBI Gene 4191
MDH2 contributes to Mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase.
MDM2 · MDM2 proto-oncogene
A gene whose protein product is a major negative regulator of p53 stability.
MEK1 (MAP2K1) · mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1
A dual-specificity kinase in the MAPK cascade. MEK1 phosphorylates ERK proteins downstream of RAF-family kinases.
MEK2 (MAP2K2) · mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2
A dual-specificity kinase in the MAPK cascade. MEK2 phosphorylates ERK proteins downstream of RAF-family kinases.
Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase · EC 5.4.99.2
Rearranges methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA after propionyl-CoA metabolism.
Mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase · EC 4.1.1.33
Uses ATP to produce isopentenyl diphosphate from mevalonate diphosphate.
Mevalonate kinase · EC 2.7.1.36
Phosphorylates mevalonate in the cholesterol-biosynthesis pathway.
Mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase · EC 1.1.1.37
Oxidizes malate to oxaloacetate while reducing NAD+.
Mitochondrial trifunctional protein · EC 1.1.1.211
Oxidizes L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA in long-chain fatty-acid beta-oxidation.
MLST8 · MTOR associated protein, LST8 homolog
Encodes mLST8, a component shared by mTORC1 and mTORC2.
mLST8 (MLST8) · MTOR associated protein, LST8 homolog
A protein subunit found in both mTORC1 and mTORC2.
MTOR · mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase
Encodes the catalytic kinase subunit shared by mTORC1 and mTORC2.
mTOR (MTOR) · mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase
A protein kinase that forms distinct complexes, including mTORC1 and mTORC2. Those complexes have different subunits and functions.
mTORC2 · Mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 2
A distinct MTOR-containing complex with RICTOR and other subunits. Among its roles, mTORC2 can phosphorylate AKT at serine 473; it differs in composition and regulation from mTORC1.
MUT · NCBI Gene 4594
MUT contributes to Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase.
MVD · NCBI Gene 4597
MVD contributes to Mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase.
MVK · NCBI Gene 4598
MVK contributes to Mevalonate kinase.
NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase · EC 1.1.1.41
Oxidatively decarboxylates isocitrate to 2-oxoglutarate.
NDUFS1 · NCBI Gene 4719
NDUFS1 contributes to Respiratory complex I.
Neurofibromin (NF1) · neurofibromin 1
A RAS GTPase-activating protein that promotes GTP hydrolysis and can reduce RAS pathway signaling.
NF1 · neurofibromin 1
Encodes neurofibromin, a RAS GTPase-activating protein that helps turn off RAS signaling.
OGDH · NCBI Gene 4967
OGDH contributes to 2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex.
OMP decarboxylase · EC 4.1.1.23
Decarboxylates OMP to form UMP.
Open Reading frame (ORF) · Open reading frame (ORF)
A sequence that can be read in one codon frame without an in-frame stop; a long ORF can suggest protein-coding potential but does not prove expression.
Ornithine transcarbamylase · EC 2.1.3.3
Transfers the carbamoyl group to ornithine to form citrulline.
Orotate phosphoribosyltransferase · EC 2.4.2.10
Transfers ribose phosphate from PRPP to orotate to form OMP.
OTC · NCBI Gene 5009
OTC contributes to Ornithine transcarbamylase.
p110α (PIK3CA) · phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha
The catalytic subunit of a common class IA PI3K complex. Together with a regulatory subunit, it can phosphorylate PIP2 to form PIP3.
p85α (PIK3R1) · phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase regulatory subunit 1
A regulatory subunit of class IA PI3K. Receptor-associated signals can recruit the complex and change regulation of its catalytic subunit.
PAH · phenylalanine hydroxylase
Encodes phenylalanine hydroxylase, which converts phenylalanine to tyrosine.
PAICS · NCBI Gene 10606
PAICS contributes to SAICAR synthetase.
PC · NCBI Gene 5091
PC contributes to Pyruvate carboxylase.
PCK1 · NCBI Gene 5105
PCK1 contributes to Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (cytosolic).
PCSK9
A protein that can promote LDL-receptor degradation and thereby influence LDL cholesterol levels.
PCSK9–LDLR Complex · Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 bound to LDL receptor
A receptor–ligand complex formed when PCSK9 binds LDLR. This interaction can change receptor trafficking and favor lysosomal degradation rather than recycling.
PDE4D · phosphodiesterase 4D
Encodes a cAMP-selective phosphodiesterase that contributes to localized cyclic AMP turnover.
PDE4D · phosphodiesterase 4D
A cAMP-selective phosphodiesterase isoform that hydrolyzes cyclic AMP to AMP. PDE4D splice variants and localization help shape local signal dynamics.
PDHA1 · NCBI Gene 5160
PDHA1 contributes to Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
PDK1 (PDPK1) · 3-phosphoinositide dependent protein kinase 1
A kinase recruited in phosphoinositide signaling that phosphorylates AKT at threonine 308. This is distinct from pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases, which are also abbreviated PDKs.
PDPK1 · 3-phosphoinositide dependent protein kinase 1
Encodes PDK1, a kinase that phosphorylates AKT at a site needed for full activation in the PIP3 signaling network.
PFAS · NCBI Gene 5198
PFAS contributes to FGAM synthetase.
PFKL · NCBI Gene 5211
PFKL contributes to Phosphofructokinase-1.
PFKM · NCBI Gene 5213
PFKM contributes to Phosphofructokinase-1.
PFKP · NCBI Gene 5214
PFKP contributes to Phosphofructokinase-1.
PGAM1 · NCBI Gene 5223
PGAM1 contributes to Phosphoglycerate mutase.
PGAM2 · NCBI Gene 5224
PGAM2 contributes to Phosphoglycerate mutase.
PGD · NCBI Gene 5226
PGD contributes to 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase.
PGK1 · NCBI Gene 5230
PGK1 contributes to Phosphoglycerate kinase.
PGLS · NCBI Gene 25796
PGLS contributes to 6-Phosphogluconolactonase.
PGM1 · NCBI Gene 5236
PGM1 contributes to Phosphoglucomutase 1.
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (cytosolic) · EC 4.1.1.32
Uses GTP to convert oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate and carbon dioxide.
Phosphofructokinase-1 · EC 2.7.1.11
Catalyzes the committed step of glycolysis. It is inhibited by ATP and citrate and activated by AMP and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.
Phosphoglucomutase 1 · EC 5.4.2.2
Interconverts glucose 1-phosphate and glucose 6-phosphate.
Phosphoglycerate kinase · EC 2.7.2.3
Transfers the acyl phosphate of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP (substrate-level phosphorylation).
Phosphoglycerate mutase · EC 5.4.2.11
Moves the phosphate from carbon 3 to carbon 2. The human enzymes depend on 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate and use a phosphohistidine intermediate.
Phosphomevalonate kinase · EC 2.7.4.2
Adds a second phosphate to mevalonate 5-phosphate.
Photosystem I
A thylakoid protein–pigment complex that re-energizes electrons for reduction of NADP⁺ to NADPH.
Photosystem II
A thylakoid protein–pigment complex that uses light energy to extract electrons from water.
PIK3CA · phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha
Encodes the p110-alpha catalytic subunit of class I PI3K, which can produce PIP3 from PIP2.
PIK3R1 · phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase regulatory subunit 1
Encodes the p85-alpha regulatory subunit found in several class IA PI3K complexes.
PKA Catalytic subunit alpha (PRKACA) · protein kinase cAMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha
A catalytic subunit of protein kinase A. cAMP binding to regulatory subunits of the PKA holoenzyme releases active catalytic subunits; PRKACA is one catalytic isoform.
PKLR · NCBI Gene 5313
PKLR contributes to Pyruvate kinase.
PKM · NCBI Gene 5315
PKM contributes to Pyruvate kinase.
PMVK · NCBI Gene 10654
PMVK contributes to Phosphomevalonate kinase.
PPAT · NCBI Gene 5471
PPAT contributes to Glutamine phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase.
PRKACA · protein kinase cAMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha
Encodes a catalytic subunit of protein kinase A, a cAMP-regulated protein kinase complex.
Protein Kinase A (PKA) · cAMP-dependent protein kinase holoenzyme
A cAMP-regulated protein kinase assembled from regulatory and catalytic subunits. cAMP binding to the regulatory subunits can release active catalytic subunits; subunit composition and signaling are context-dependent.
PRPS1 · NCBI Gene 5631
PRPS1 contributes to Ribose-phosphate pyrophosphokinase.
PTEN · phosphatase and tensin homolog
Encodes a lipid phosphatase that converts PIP3 back to PIP2 and can restrain PI3K signaling.
PTEN · phosphatase and tensin homolog
A lipid phosphatase that removes a phosphate from PIP3, opposing PI3K and reducing a signal that helps recruit AKT to the membrane.
PYGL · NCBI Gene 5836
PYGL contributes to Glycogen phosphorylase.
PYGM · NCBI Gene 5837
PYGM contributes to Glycogen phosphorylase.
Pyruvate carboxylase · EC 6.4.1.1
Biotin-dependent mitochondrial enzyme that carboxylates pyruvate to oxaloacetate.
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex · EC 1.2.4.1
Mitochondrial multienzyme complex that oxidatively decarboxylates pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.
Pyruvate kinase · EC 2.7.1.40
Transfers the phosphate of PEP to ADP in a strongly exergonic reaction that requires Mg2+ and K+. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate activates the PKM2 and liver isoforms (feed-forward activation).
RAF1 · Raf-1 proto-oncogene, serine/threonine kinase
Encodes a RAF-family kinase that can activate MEK proteins downstream of RAS.
RAF1 (C-RAF) · Raf-1 proto-oncogene, serine/threonine kinase
A RAF-family kinase that can relay RAS signals to MEK. RAF proteins can form dimers, so the pathway is more context-dependent than a single straight chain.
Raptor (RPTOR) · regulatory associated protein of MTOR complex 1
A defining mTORC1 subunit that helps recruit substrates to the complex.
Respiratory complex I · EC 7.1.1.2
Transfers electrons from NADH to ubiquinone and pumps protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Respiratory complex II · EC 1.3.5.1
Transfers electrons from succinate oxidation to ubiquinone without pumping protons.
Respiratory complex III · EC 7.1.1.8
Transfers electrons from ubiquinol to cytochrome c and contributes to proton translocation.
RGS Proteins
Regulators of G-protein signaling that accelerate GTP hydrolysis by selected heterotrimeric Gα subunits.
RHEB · Ras homolog, mTORC1 binding
Encodes a small GTPase whose GTP-bound state can activate mTORC1.
RHEB · Ras homolog, mTORC1 binding
A small GTPase that can activate mTORC1 when GTP-bound. The TSC complex regulates the balance between RHEB nucleotide states.
Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase · EC 5.3.1.6
Interconverts ribulose 5-phosphate and ribose 5-phosphate.
Ribose-phosphate pyrophosphokinase · EC 2.7.6.1
Activates ribose 5-phosphate to PRPP using ATP.
Ribosome
A ribonucleoprotein molecular machine that reads messenger RNA and assembles amino acids into a polypeptide.
Ribulose-phosphate 3-epimerase · EC 5.1.3.1
Interconverts ribulose 5-phosphate and xylulose 5-phosphate.
RICTOR · RPTOR independent companion of MTOR complex 2
Encodes a defining scaffold subunit of mTORC2, which can phosphorylate AKT at serine 473.
RICTOR · RPTOR independent companion of MTOR complex 2
A defining scaffold subunit of mTORC2. The mTORC2 complex can phosphorylate AKT at serine 473.
RNA-induced Silencing complex · RNA-induced silencing complex
A protein complex that uses a guide RNA to recognize and regulate complementary target RNAs.
RNase H1
An enzyme that recognizes RNA–DNA hybrids and can cleave the RNA strand, a mechanism used by some antisense drugs.
RPE · NCBI Gene 6120
RPE contributes to Ribulose-phosphate 3-epimerase.
RPIA · NCBI Gene 22934
RPIA contributes to Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase.
RPS6KB1 · ribosomal protein S6 kinase B1
Encodes S6K1, a kinase downstream of mTORC1 that helps regulate protein synthesis and cell growth.
RPTOR · regulatory associated protein of MTOR complex 1
Encodes Raptor, a defining scaffold and substrate-recruitment subunit of mTORC1.
RuBisCO
The enzyme complex that catalyzes CO₂ addition to ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate in the Calvin cycle.
S6K1 (RPS6KB1) · ribosomal protein S6 kinase B1
A kinase that can be activated downstream of mTORC1 and phosphorylate targets involved in protein synthesis and cell growth.
SAICAR synthetase · EC 6.3.4.13
Adds aspartate to CAIR; the product is then cleaved to AICAR and fumarate.
SDHA · NCBI Gene 6389
SDHA contributes to Respiratory complex II.
SHC1 · SHC adaptor protein 1
Encodes an adaptor protein that helps connect activated receptors with downstream signaling proteins.
SHC1 · SHC adaptor protein 1
An adaptor protein that can help assemble signaling complexes downstream of activated cell-surface receptors.
SLC37A4 · solute carrier family 37 member 4
Encodes the glucose-6-phosphate transporter associated with GSD type Ib.
SMN1 · survival of motor neuron 1, telomeric
Encodes the SMN protein needed by motor neurons; loss of both functional copies causes most spinal muscular atrophy.
SOS1 · SOS Ras/Rac guanine nucleotide exchange factor 1
Encodes a guanine-nucleotide exchange factor that promotes GDP-to-GTP exchange on RAS proteins.
SOS1 · SOS Ras/Rac guanine nucleotide exchange factor 1
A RAS guanine-nucleotide exchange factor. When recruited to signaling complexes, SOS1 can promote the active, GTP-bound state of RAS.
Squalene synthase · EC 2.5.1.21
Combines two farnesyl diphosphate molecules to form squalene.
Sterol-processing enzymes · EC 1.14.14.154
A simplified group label for demethylation, reduction, and double-bond rearrangements that convert lanosterol to cholesterol.
Succinate dehydrogenase · EC 1.3.5.1
TCA-cycle enzyme and respiratory complex II that oxidizes succinate to fumarate.
Succinyl-CoA synthetase · EC 6.2.1.4
Couples succinyl-CoA cleavage to GTP formation in the mitochondrial matrix.
SUCLG1 · NCBI Gene 8802
SUCLG1 contributes to Succinyl-CoA synthetase.
SUCLG2 · NCBI Gene 8801
SUCLG2 contributes to Succinyl-CoA synthetase.
TALDO1 · NCBI Gene 6888
TALDO1 contributes to Transaldolase.
TBC1D4 · TBC1 domain family member 4
Encodes a Rab GTPase-activating protein that helps regulate insulin-responsive GLUT4 vesicle traffic.
TBC1D4 (AS160) · TBC1 domain family member 4
A Rab GTPase-activating protein that regulates GLUT4 vesicle traffic. Insulin-linked AKT phosphorylation of TBC1D4 is an important part of GLUT4 regulation in muscle and adipose cells; other signals and trafficking steps also contribute.
TKT · NCBI Gene 7086
TKT contributes to Transketolase.
TPI1 · NCBI Gene 7167
TPI1 contributes to Triose-phosphate isomerase.
Transaldolase · EC 2.2.1.2
Transfers a three-carbon unit between sugar phosphates in the non-oxidative branch.
Transcription Start site · Transcription start site
The DNA position where RNA polymerase begins synthesizing a particular RNA transcript.
Transketolase · EC 2.2.1.1
Transfers two-carbon units between sugar phosphates in the non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway.
Triose-phosphate isomerase · EC 5.3.1.1
Interconverts dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
TSC1 · TSC complex subunit 1
Encodes hamartin, a component of the TSC1–TSC2 complex that restrains RHEB–mTORC1 signaling.
TSC1 (hamartin) · TSC complex subunit 1
A component of the TSC1–TSC2 protein complex, which acts upstream of RHEB and helps regulate mTORC1.
TSC1–TSC2 Complex · Tuberous sclerosis protein complex
TSC1 and TSC2 form a regulatory complex that acts as a GTPase-activating protein for RHEB. This helps restrain RHEB-driven mTORC1 activity.
TSC2 · TSC complex subunit 2
Encodes tuberin, a RHEB GTPase-activating component of the TSC1–TSC2 complex.
TSC2 (tuberin) · TSC complex subunit 2
A catalytic component of the TSC1–TSC2 complex that promotes conversion of active RHEB-GTP toward RHEB-GDP, reducing mTORC1 activation.
UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase · EC 2.7.7.9
Activates glucose 1-phosphate with UTP to form UDP-glucose.
UGP2 · NCBI Gene 7360
UGP2 contributes to UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase.
UMPS · NCBI Gene 7372
UMPS contributes to OMP decarboxylase.
UQCRC1 · NCBI Gene 7384
UQCRC1 contributes to Respiratory complex III.
Very-long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase · EC 1.3.8.9
Catalyzes the first oxidation in long-chain mitochondrial beta-oxidation.
Voltage-Gated Ion Channel
A family of membrane-spanning protein channels whose opening or closing is influenced by membrane voltage and whose ion selectivity depends on channel structure.
β-arrestin
Adaptor proteins that can reduce GPCR coupling to G proteins and organize receptor trafficking or other signaling events.